2 Chapter 2: Supporting Everything You Say with Evidence

All of your speeches in this class require some sort of citation, evidence, or backing. “Evidence” is a short quotation used in a speech as a warrant to support a speaker’s claim.  In this chapter we will examine the general standards for evidence, the many sources that speakers use to find evidence, and how that evidence is evaluated, organized, and presented in a speech.

General Standards for Evidence

Speech makers have three standards for evidence.

1. Evidence must come from a reputable source. Your source must be a trustworthy publication or source that is qualified to publish or speak on the subject. Most evidence will come from peer-reviewed sources such as journals and books. You can also use non-peer-reviewed, publicly available sources, such as government reports, newspaper articles, and online resources. Regardless of the source, you must carefully analyze all evidence for bias, contradiction, clarity.

Wikipedia and other open-source forms of information are generally discouraged. As are items such as the school newspaper, something your mom told you on the phone last night, or an Instagram story. While each of these may have meaning and make for a strong story that brings attention to your speech, they are not the things that are actually proving your point. Most important, you should NEVER just make up your own evidence. Please don’t lie and say something like “a well-regarded publication says x” when you know that such a citation does not exist. You might get away with this for a while, but when it catches up to you it will be very hard for your reputation to recover.

Some speakers use evidence from poetry, novels, personal narratives, and music in their speeches. These pieces of evidence make for compelling speeches. Often times these types of evidence can draw the audience’s attention to the speech, which allows them to listen to and care about your main points and other evidence.

When using an artistic form of evidence, be sure to to explain where the text came from, how the text will be used during the speech, and how using these sources will advance the goals of the speech. Put another way, don’t just quote your favorite song and leave the audience to wonder why you did so. Instead, explain the connection to your speech topic.

2. Evidence must be presented in its original form. NEVER alter the original text of your evidence to change its meaning or mislead your audience. Additionally, while you can paraphrase or use a summary of an article as evidence, you need to be clear what is a direct quote and what is your own phrasing. And, in your written outline be sure to provide a citation for the things that you have summarized in your speech.

Make sure you are not distorting the meaning of a quote when you summarize it. For example, consider the quote: “Dr. Jones reports that more tests are needed because her preliminary results shockingly revealed that no one has ever gotten fat from eating too many candy bars.” Presenting only “Dr. Jones revealed that no one has ever gotten fat from eating too many candy bars” gives a much different impression than reading the entire sentence. In some organizations (including universities) even the smallest change of a word or phrase is a fraudulent violation of academic or organizational policy. Obviously, removing words to change the meaning of a statement is also unacceptable.

3. Evidence must be readily accessible to your audience. Most of the gins you are quoting and discussing will be easily found on the internet or in a library. If that is not the case, make it clear how you had access to this information. This might be that you were able to visit an archive, have access to a set of documents, or were able to attend a closed doors meeting. In the last case, it is ok to tell the audience that you’ve seen the documents but are not permitted to directly share them with the audience. If you are making this claim, however, you need to be sure your ethos is established enough that the audience actually believes you’ve seen what you claim to have seen.

Sources of Evidence

Speakers use a wide variety of sources for evidence. While they still use print media, such as books, journals, and newspapers, contemporary speakers also utilize search engines, digital books, electronic archives, and online government sources. Electronic access to resources has improved the quality and specificity of speech evidence while creating a constant race to have the most up-to-date information. Consequently, speakers conduct research when they are planning a speech. And then they quickly check to make sure that nothing has changed in the days or hours before their speech. For example, think of a data set that does not come out too often. You might say “According to the most recent organizational report, released in 2023, 20% of consumers have never heard of our product.” This might be the most recent report when you are writing your speech. But you will feel and look foolish if the new report is released a few days later and you haven’t updated the speech that you are soon to give. Members of the audience might immediately wonder why you are using old facts, especially if the new report is very different than the one that you are citing. This will radically effect your ethos and cause them to question all of your facts and arguments.

Search Engines

When using sites such as Google or another search engine, you should first focus on the terms used in your speech and then incorporate synonyms into your search. While basic searches are productive, using specialized search engines will greatly improve and hasten your research. For example, Google News is a simple tool for finding only the most recent data. Google Scholar is useful for finding articles from peer-reviewed sources.

Journals and Databases

Many libraries subscribe to databases that enable patrons to search a wide variety of peer-reviewed publications. When preparing for a speech, speakers commonly use four databases:

Lexis/Nexis aggregates legal, news, and business publications. Because it contains almost every newspaper in the world, debaters most commonly use Lexis/Nexis to update policy arguments.

However, Lexis/Nexis also houses legal journals that are useful for corporate policy and analysis.

Project Muse is a collection of scholarly journals in the humanities and social sciences.

JSTOR is an excellent source for humanities journals, including area studies, political science, and economics. Always use a date limit when researching on JSTOR. The database holds articles from the 1800s that are interesting but will not help your debate argument.

EBSCOhost is subdivided into 31 different databases. For speakers in communication fields, the most useful subdivision is “Communication and Mass Media Complete,” which searches all debate-related articles and is a valuable resource for finding evidence that discusses the values, purpose, and effects of debate. “Academic-Search Premier” is useful for general humanities and science articles, although its holdings overlap JSTOR.

Shrewd speakers do not limit themselves to these databases. Baruch subscribes to hundreds of databases; we encourage you to investigate any that might be tied to your speech topic. If you don’t know where to start, the library webpage has a “chat with a librarian” feature. They can be amazingly helpful.

Books

With increasing access to digital media, speakers less commonly use books to find evidence. This is a mistake! Finding evidence in books may take more time than searching electronically, but books often give a more nuanced understanding of the topic. And, because fewer speakers research from books, this type of evidence can make your speech stand out.

Reading an entire book is not necessary to gather evidence. First look at the table of contents to determine if one or two chapters would be helpful. Then read the opening and closing paragraphs of those chapters. Only if these paragraphs look promising should you read the entire chapter. A different approach is to turn directly to the index and use the terms from your search engine research to find specific references. Finally, look at the footnotes and bibliography, which will point to relevant books, journal articles, and other materials.

Think Tanks

Think tanks and policy institutes are organizations that conduct research and engage in advocacy on specific issues or policy areas. These organizations, which distribute massive amounts of data, are excellent sources of quality evidence. Because think tanks are supported by organizations with specific political or cultural agendas, however, be sure to understand not only the reports that they produce but also the group’s motivations for producing them. Realizing in the middle of a question-and-answer period that the evidence used to support your argument is biased by an organization that contradicts your other arguments can be very embarrassing and hurts your ethos. You can find think tanks and information about think tank biases by using search engines and examining the article’s references.

From the references, you will know if the article is based in a particular political point of view, is based only on editorials, or in some other way has only examined one side of the issue.

RSS Feeds

Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds are the easiest way to gather current information because simply by signing up for the service, articles relating to your research topic are automatically delivered to you via email. RSS is exceptionally helpful for long-term research projects. They can also be a great way to network, find events that are appealing to you, and at times find internships, jobs, and fellowships. For example, if you find yourself always focusing on NYC public housing, it would be worthwhile to research and sign up for several RSS Feeds. These are then delivered to your email account and all you to quickly stay up to date and expand your knowledge base.

Conference Proceedings

Every year, members of policy, research, and academic organizations gather at conferences to speak about their research. Conferences focus on overarching themes, many of which are useful for speech making. Although some meetings publish their proceedings, many do not. Savvy researchers will scan conference programs to find presentations relevant to their arguments and then ask the presenter for a copy of her paper. Then, during a speech, they can indicate “I’ve spoken with Prof. X about her research on turtles and her current research suggests…”

Government Reports

Government agencies produce an amazing number of reports, some of which are very useful sources of evidence. While the United States does not have a central database for all government documents, a simple Google search that includes “government publication” will locate these documents.

Professors

Sometimes, you have a wonderful topic but don’t know how to go about condensing all of the information you have, or you can’t figure out what parts are most important. Professors can be excellent resources to break through this slump. They are knowledgeable about their subjects, have good research skills, and usually love to talk about their own research. Meeting with a professor can produce a better understanding of the topic. Remember, all professors are required, by their contracts at CUNY, to hold office hours. These hours are designed so that students can come and ask questions like this.

Reference Librarians

Reference librarians specialize in helping patrons with research. They know where to find the best resources, how to navigate the library’s databases, and can offer a variety of suggestions on how to conduct your research. Be sure to consult them. You can find Baruch’s reference librarians in the Newman Library and you can also reach them through the “Ask a Librarian” feature found at: https://library.baruch.cuny.edu/

General Research Strategy

Starting your Research

Begin your research by creating a list of key words and terms relating to the topic. Next, use a search engine to find two or three introductory articles that provide an overview of the topic. Use these articles to develop a grasp of the issues surrounding your topic and expand your key word list. As you read, keep a list of issues raised by your introductory articles that would add depth to the body of research. Then, when you have completed your preliminary overview, use this list to collect another, more specific, set of articles.

The ability to think ahead and predict how your audience might respond to your evidence and arguments is what transforms an okay speaker into a great speaker. While researching, attempt to anticipate your audience’s objections and find responses. This process begins when you read an article and ask yourself: “How would I refute this argument?” Then, find evidence that supports your refutation.

Evaluating Evidence

How do speakers and scholars sort through all of the evidence available online? There are four ways that you can start: date, source, author’s intent, and clarity.

1. Date. As a general rule, evidence should be as current as possible. Using evidence from the day of, or sometimes hours before, a speech is not uncommon and can make your speech seem exceptionally important and relevant to your audience. Yet, remember that Communication, English, History and Philosophy classes still talk about Plato. There’s nothing unusual about using philosophical evidence that is decades, centuries, or a millennia old. But if you are using recent statistics, you need to use the most recent statistics.

2. Source. Finding an unbiased source is impossible. You should be familiar with the background of the authors who wrote your evidence. When evaluating evidence, ask the following questions:

• Is the author an expert on the topic?
• Is the publication from an NGO, a government document, or a scholarly press?
• What are the publisher’s biases?
• Who funded the author’s research?
• Does the author have a personal or economic stake in the argument she is making?
• What are the author’s philosophical or political leanings?

This information is important because it can help you find contradictions in the evidence that you are using as well as prepare for objections that may come from the audience.

3.  Authors’ Intent. Why did a author use the terms that they have, and what did they intend them to mean? Think for a moment about an important international and public policy term, “weapons of mass destruction.” This term has many different meanings. Some authors may define it narrowly to include only nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons; others may have broader definitions that might include conventional incendiary weapons such as napalm. Other still may use it to mean a exceptionally strategic marketing strategy which is a metaphorical weapon. When conducting research, you must make sure that each of your author’s definitions is consistent with your argument and you are very sure that you understand the limitations of the author’s text.

4. Clarity. Clear evidence presents claims and warrants that are easy to understand. This means that the author has used strong wording and been economical with words. Since each speech has a time limit, concise evidence that quickly presents an argument is much better than long-winded claims using vague language.

Citing your Evidence

The citation includes all of the information your audience needs to find the evidence and to evaluate the source. You present only a small portion of the citation—usually only the author and year in a speech, but you should be sure to have the full citation with you and ready to provide if an audience member or your instructor is interested. Some speakers like to have a “works cited” page at the end of their speech. We don’t recommend this (unless your teacher has required it). Instead, have your references properly organized and ready if someone asks for them after the speech.

Keeping Evidence for the Future

As you move through academia and your career you will find yourself speaking more and more often on subjects that are directly relevant and interesting to you. Be sure to keep the evidence you have used and would like to use in the future in a Dropbox file or other storage method so that you can quickly use your favorite resources.

KEY CONCEPTS

1. Speech evidence is a short quotation used to support arguments.
2. The three standards for evidence are: it comes from a reputable source, is presented in original form, and is readily accessible to your audience and/or professor.
3. Speakers find evidence by using search engines, journal databases, books, RSS feeds, conference proceedings, think tank and government reports, speaking with professors, reading dissertations, and consulting librarians.
4. To find evidence, speakers begin with a list of key words, identify the most important arguments to support their position, and then determine how audience members and opponents might try to question or refute their speech.
5. Evidence should be evaluated based on the date, source, author’s qualifications, and clarity.
6. A citation provides the author, publication name, and date of the evidence so that speakers and audience can find the original source material.