Glossary of Key Terms

The "First Wave" of European immigration to the United States, from the early 19th century until the 1880s, saw a large influx of immigrants primarily from Northern and Western Europe, including Ireland, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Scandinavia. They were driven by economic hardship and displacement due to industrialization in their home countries and attracted by economic opportunities and technological innovations in transportation that made migration more feasible.

The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, affirms that anyone born or naturalized within the country is automatically considered a citizen, regardless of their race, ethnicity, or previous condition of servitude.

The Alien and Sedition Acts were a series of laws enacted by the United States Congress in 1798 during the administration of President John Adams. The Alien Acts authorized the President to deport any non-citizen considered to be dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States, while the Sedition Act made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious" statements against the government or its officials.

Angel Island, located in San Francisco Bay, served as the primary immigration station for the western United States from 1910 to 1940. Often referred to as the "Ellis Island of the West," it processed hundreds of thousands of immigrants, primarily from Asia. Unlike Ellis Island, Angel Island was known for its strict enforcement of immigration laws, particularly those stemming from the Chinese Exclusion Act, resulting in lengthy detentions and harsh interrogations that led to the imprisonment and deportation of many immigrants.

The annexation of Hawaii by the United States in 1898 marked the end of the Hawaiian Kingdom and its incorporation as a U.S. territory. This annexation facilitated increased immigration to the mainland United States, particularly for Asian immigrants, as it provided a more accessible entry point within U.S. jurisdiction.

The Anti-Saloon League, founded in 1893, was a leading organization advocating for Prohibition in the United States. It frequently targeted immigrants, particularly Irish and Germans, holding them responsible for the perceived societal ills associated with alcohol consumption. This blame often intensified public sentiment against immigrant communities during the early 20th century.

The "Atlantic World" refers to the interconnected network of trade, migration, and cultural exchange that emerged across the Atlantic Ocean during the age of European exploration and colonization, roughly from the late 15th to the early 19th centuries. This concept encompasses the interactions between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, facilitated by the triangular trade routes established by European powers.

The California Gold Rush, which began in 1848, triggered a massive wave of immigration to California from around the world, particularly from China, Latin America, Europe, and the eastern United States. This influx of diverse populations seeking fortune and opportunities dramatically increased the state's population and contributed to its rapid economic and social development.

Castle Garden, located in Manhattan, New York City, was America's first official immigration center, operated by the state of New York from 1855 to 1890. It processed millions of immigrants, primarily from Europe, providing crucial services such as medical examinations before they could enter the United States. In 1892, it was replaced by the federal immigration station Ellis Island.

Chain migration describes the phenomenon where immigrants build a presence in a new country and then facilitate the migration of relatives or acquaintances from their home country to join them. This process serves as both a pull factor, making the destination country appealing, and a means to facilitate movement within immigrant communities.

The Chinese Exclusion Act, enacted in 1882, was a United States federal law that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers. It was the first significant law restricting immigration to the U.S. based on nationality and reflected widespread anti-Chinese sentiment and racial prejudice. The act severely limited Chinese immigration for over 60 years until it was repealed in 1943.

Circular or return migration is the voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place of origin. In some cases, immigrants take multiple migrations to and from their place of origin.

Citizenship refers to the legal status of being a member of a particular nation or country and enjoying the rights, privileges, and responsibilities afforded by that membership. It typically involves allegiance to the state, adherence to its laws, and participation in its political processes.

The term "coolie" was a derogatory label used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to describe Chinese laborers in the United States and other parts of the world. It referred to Chinese immigrants who worked in harsh, low-wage jobs, often under exploitative conditions, such as building the transcontinental railroad or laboring on plantations. The use of the term reflected and perpetuated racial prejudice and discrimination against Chinese Americans, casting them as a labor force inferior to native-born workers.

Cultural hybridity refers to the process by which a cultural element blends into another culture by modifying the element to fit cultural norms. It’s a concept that highlights the continuous exchange and interaction among cultures, resulting in the formation of novel cultural expressions.

A diaspora refers to the dispersion or scattering of people from their original homeland or ancestral roots to other parts of the world. Historical examples of diaspora include the Jewish diaspora following the Babylonian exile and the dispersion of Africans during the transatlantic slave trade.

Executive Order 9066, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, authorized the forced relocation and internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans during World War II. This order allowed military authorities to designate "military areas" from which any or all persons could be excluded, leading to the creation of internment camps where Japanese Americans, many of whom were U.S. citizens, were held without due process. The order was a response to wartime hysteria and fears of espionage, but it has since been recognized as a grave violation of civil liberties based on racial prejudice.

Ravenstein's theories also include three "Factors of Migration." Push factors refer to conditions that drive people to leave their place of origin. Pull factors attract migrants to a new destination, such as job opportunities, political stability, or better living conditions. Means factors include the resources and methods individuals use to move, such as transportation networks, financial resources, or social networks (i.e., friends, family, etc.).  Means factors also include laws and governmental policies that prevent or facilitate people from migrating to another country. (i.e., visa requirements, passports, etc.)

Forced migration involves individuals being compelled to leave their homes or native regions due to coercion or persecution, with no option to stay. One historical example of forced migration is the transatlantic slave trade, during which millions of Africans were abducted and forcibly transported to the Americas to work as enslaved laborers.

The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799. It saw the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and ultimately culminated in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power.

The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 was an informal arrangement between the United States and Japan in which Japan agreed to restrict the emigration of its citizens to the U.S. This agreement was a response to growing anti-Japanese sentiment and the desire to reduce tensions between the two nations. In exchange, the U.S. promised to address the discrimination and segregation faced by Japanese immigrants already in the country, particularly in California.

The Great Famine, also known as the Irish Potato Famine or the Great Hunger, was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. It was caused by a potato blight that destroyed the country's potato crops, which were a staple food for the majority of the population. The famine led to the deaths of approximately one million people and the emigration of around two million more, fundamentally altering Irish demographics and contributing to Irish diaspora populations worldwide.

The Great Migration of 1630 refers to the large-scale migration of English Puritans to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the early 17th century. Approximately 20,000 settlers arrived in the Massachusetts Bay area between 1629 and 1642, seeking religious freedom and economic opportunities.

The Haitian Revolution was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now known as Haiti, from 1791 to 1804. It resulted in the establishment of the first independent black republic in the Americas and the abolition of slavery in the territory.

Immigration specifically refers to the act of individuals from one country to another.

Indentured servants were individuals who voluntarily bound themselves to work for a specified period, typically between four to seven years, in exchange for passage to the American colonies, food, clothing, and shelter. This practice was common in the 17th and early 18th centuries and was a means for poor individuals to immigrate to the colonies in hopes of improving their circumstances.

Involuntary migration refers to the forced movement of individuals or groups from their homes or places of residence due to factors such as conflict, persecution, natural disasters, or other circumstances beyond their control.

John Smith was a prominent figure in the early Virginia colony, serving as one of its leaders and an important advocate for its survival. He played a vital role in establishing the Jamestown settlement and maintaining relations with local Native American tribes, famously saved from execution by Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan.

Jus sanguinis, Latin for "right of blood," is a legal principle that determines citizenship based on the nationality or citizenship of one or both parents, regardless of the place of birth. In other words, individuals acquire citizenship at birth if one or both of their parents are citizens of a particular country, irrespective of where they are born.

Jus soli, Latin for "right of the soil," is a legal principle that grants citizenship to individuals based on their place of birth. Under jus soli, individuals are considered citizens of the country in which they are born, regardless of the citizenship status of their parents.

The Meiji Restoration, which began in 1868, was a period of major political, social, and economic reforms in Japan, marked by the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the restoration of imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. This era saw the rapid modernization and industrialization of Japan, transforming it into a powerful and modernized state. These changes also led to increased emigration, as many Japanese sought opportunities abroad.

The Middle Colonies in colonial America refer to the region located between New England and the Southern Colonies, comprising present-day states such as New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Known for their cultural and religious diversity, the Middle Colonies attracted settlers from various European countries, including England, the Netherlands, Germany, and Sweden.

The Middle Passage refers to the transatlantic voyage during the Atlantic slave trade, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported from Africa to the Americas under brutal and inhumane conditions.

Migration is the act of relocating from one place to another, whether within a country or across international borders.

The National Origins Act, also known as the Immigration Act of 1924 and the Johnson-Reed Act, established a quota system that limited the number of immigrants allowed from each country to 2% of the number of people from that country already living in the U.S. as of the 1890 census. It aimed to reduce immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe and excluded immigrants from Asia altogether. The act significantly altered U.S. immigration patterns until it was repealed by the Hart-Celler Act of 1965, which introduced a more equitable immigration policy.

Nativism refers to the political ideology or movement that prioritizes the interests of native-born or established inhabitants over those of immigrants. It often involves a belief in the superiority of native culture and a desire to limit or restrict immigration.

A natural-born citizen is an individual who is automatically granted citizenship by virtue of being born within the territory of a particular country or to parents who are citizens of that country.

Naturalization is the process by which a foreign individual becomes a citizen of a country where they were not born. This typically involves fulfilling certain legal requirements, such as residency, knowledge of the country's history and government, and taking an oath of allegiance to the new nation.

The Naturalization Act of 1790 was the first law passed by the United States Congress concerning citizenship. It restricted naturalization to "free white persons" of good character who had resided in the country for at least two years.

The Naturalization Act of 1795 amended the previous Naturalization Act of 1790, extending the residency requirement for citizenship from two to five years. It also required immigrants to declare their intention to become citizens three years prior to their naturalization.

New England in colonial America refers to the northeastern region of the present-day United States, including the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Maine. It was characterized by its Puritan religious beliefs, small family farms, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade.

The Opium Wars fought between China and Britain in the mid-19th century, resulted in significant economic and social disruption in China. The wars led to China's defeat and the imposition of unequal treaties, which weakened the Chinese economy, increased poverty, and caused widespread social instability. These conditions acted as push factors, driving many Chinese to seek better opportunities abroad, including significant immigration to the United States.

A packet ship refers to a type of sailing vessel, typically a fast and well-built merchant ship, that was used for carrying mail (packets) and passengers between various ports. These ships were known for their speed, reliability, and regular schedules, making them essential for communication and transportation during the 18th and 19th centuries.

"Picture brides" was a practice in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where Japanese immigrant laborers in the United States and Hawaii selected brides from their home countries through the exchange of photographs. This arrangement allowed women to join their husbands in the U.S. or Hawaii, effectively bypassing restrictive immigration laws, as the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 permitted only family members of existing immigrants to enter. The practice of picture brides also helped to establish and grow Japanese-American communities by addressing the gender imbalance among the immigrant population.

Push factors refer to conditions that drive people to leave their place of origin, such as economic hardship, political instability, or environmental disasters. Pull factors are conditions that attract migrants to a new destination, such as job opportunities, political stability, or better living conditions. Means of migration include the resources and methods individuals use to move, such as transportation, financial resources, or social networks (i.e. family, friends, etc.)

Ravenstein's "Laws of Migration," proposed by the British demographer Ernst Georg Ravenstein in the late 19th century, posits several principles to explain patterns of migration. These principles include the idea that most migrants travel only a short distance and that migration flows exhibit a step-wise pattern from rural to urban areas and across national borders. Ravenstein also suggested that age, gender, and economic status influence migration decisions.

Settler colonialism refers to the permanent settlement of foreign populations in a new territory, often displacing or marginalizing indigenous peoples. It aims to establish a new society based on the settlers' cultural, political, and economic systems, typically at the expense of indigenous land, resources, and sovereignty.

Slave codes were a set of laws enacted in colonial British America to govern the institution of slavery and regulate the behavior and status of enslaved individuals. These codes codified the legal inferiority of enslaved people and imposed harsh penalties for attempting to escape or resist bondage.

The Southern Colonies in colonial America encompassed the region extending from Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina to South Carolina and Georgia. Known for their reliance on plantation agriculture, particularly the cultivation of cash crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo, the Southern Colonies developed a predominantly agrarian economy. The labor-intensive plantation system led to the widespread use of enslaved Africans.

The Spanish-American War, fought in 1898, resulted in the United States acquiring the Philippines and Puerto Rico from Spain. Following the war, the Philippines became a U.S. territory, which facilitated increased immigration of Filipinos to the United States. Puerto Ricans, granted U.S. citizenship in 1917, also experienced easier migration to the mainland U.S. as part of the broader consequences of the war, leading to significant Puerto Rican communities in cities like New York beginning in the first half of the 20th century. Additionally, improved transportation and communication links, along with increased familiarity with American culture and opportunities, encouraged many from these territories to seek better economic prospects and education in the U.S.

The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) was a massive civil war in southern China led by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom against the ruling Qing Dynasty. The rebellion caused widespread destruction, massive loss of life, and severe social and economic upheaval. As a result, many Chinese people fled the chaos and devastation, seeking safety and better opportunities abroad.

The "48ers" were German political refugees who fled to the United States after the failed revolutions of 1848 in the German states. These immigrants were often well-educated, skilled professionals, and intellectuals who sought refuge from political persecution and sought to promote democratic ideals and reforms in their new homeland.

The Chesapeake region in colonial North America refers to the area surrounding the Chesapeake Bay, primarily encompassing parts of present-day Maryland and Virginia. It was characterized by its reliance on tobacco cultivation as a primary economic activity, which led to the establishment of large plantations worked by indentured servants and later enslaved Africans.

The "German Triangle" refers to a geographic region in the United States during the 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily encompassing cities like Cincinnati, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. These cities had significant German immigrant populations who preserved their cultural heritage, language, and traditions, contributing to the social, economic, and cultural fabric of the Midwest.

The transatlantic slave trade, which occurred from the 16th to the 19th centuries, was a system of forced migration and exploitation that forcibly transported millions of Africans from their homelands to the Americas.

The transcontinental railroad, completed in 1869, played a crucial role in facilitating immigration to the United States, particularly from China. Thousands of Chinese laborers were recruited to work on the construction of the railroad under harsh and dangerous conditions. Their contribution not only made the railroad's completion possible but also established significant Chinese communities in the American West.

Triangular trade was a historical trade pattern between Europe, Africa, and the Americas during the colonial era. It involved the exchange of manufactured goods for enslaved Africans in Africa, who were then transported to the Americas to work on plantations, with the resulting raw materials being shipped back to Europe.

The Virginia Company was an English joint-stock company established in 1606 with the aim of establishing colonial settlements in North America.

voluntary migration refers to the movement of individuals or groups who choose to relocate from one place to another.

The War of 1812, fought between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815, was primarily triggered by British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy. This practice involved forcibly recruiting American sailors, including naturalized citizens, and was perceived by the United States as a violation of its sovereignty and citizens' rights.