We shift our attention now to Saturn. Saturn’s large moon Titan turns out to be a weird cousin of Earth, with many similarities in spite of frigid temperatures. The Cassini observations of Titan have provided some of the most exciting recent discoveries in planetary science. Enceladus may only be the sixth largest moon of Saturn, but it is notable for its cryovolcanic geysers and subsurface ocean which may have the potential to host life. Both the Cassini and Voyager missions did flybys of this interesting moon.

9.5.1 Titan, a Moon with Atmosphere and Hydrocarbon Lakes

Titan, first seen in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, was the first moon discovered after Galileo saw the four large moons of Jupiter. Titan has roughly the same diameter, mass, and density as Callisto or Ganymede. Presumably it also has a similar composition—about half ice and half rock. However, Titan is unique among moons, with a thick atmosphere and lakes and rivers and falling rain (although these are not composed of water but of hydrocarbons such as ethane and methane, which can stay liquid at the frigid temperatures on Titan). Titan is the only moon or planet other than Earth where we have found evidence of bodies of surface liquids.

The 1980 Voyager flyby of Titan determined that the surface density of its atmosphere is four times greater than that on Earth. The atmospheric pressure on this moon is 1.6 bars, higher than that on any other moon and, remarkably, even higher than that of the terrestrial planets Mars and Earth. The atmospheric composition is primarily nitrogen, an important way in which Titan’s atmosphere resembles Earth’s.

Also detected in Titan’s atmosphere were carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (compounds of hydrogen and carbon) such as methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), and propane (C₃H₈), and nitrogen compounds such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN), cyanogen (C₂N₂), and cyanoacetylene (HC₃N). Their presence indicates an active chemistry in which sunlight interacts with atmospheric nitrogen and methane to create a rich mix of organic molecules. There are also multiple layers of hydrocarbon haze and clouds in the atmosphere, as illustrated in Figure 9.19.

These Voyager discoveries motivated a much more ambitious exploration program using the NASA Cassini Saturn orbiter and a probe to land on Titan called Huygens, built by the European Space Agency. The orbiter, which included several cameras, spectrometers, and a radar imaging system, made dozens of close flybys of Titan between 2004 and 2015, each yielding radar and infrared images of portions of the surface. The Huygens probe successfully descended by parachute through the atmosphere, photographing the surface from below the clouds, and landing on January 14, 2005. This was the first (and so far the only) spacecraft landing on a moon in the outer solar system.

At the end of its parachute descent, the 319-kilogram Huygens probe safely touched down, slid a short distance, and began sending data back to Earth, including photos and analyses of the atmosphere. It appeared to have landed on a flat, boulder-strewn plain, but both the surface and the boulders were composed of water ice, which is as hard as rock at the temperature of Titan (see Figure 9.20).

The photos taken during descent showed a variety of features, including drainage channels, suggesting that Huygens had landed on the shore of an ancient hydrocarbon lake. The sky was deep orange, and the brightness of the Sun was a thousand times less than sunlight on Earth (but still more than a hundred times brighter than under the full moon on Earth). Titan’s surface temperature was 94 K (−179 °C). The warmer spacecraft heated enough of the ice where it landed for its instruments to measure released hydrocarbon gas. Measurements on the surface continued for more than an hour before the probe succumbed to the frigid temperature.

Radar and infrared imaging of Titan from the Cassini orbiter gradually built up a picture of a remarkably active surface on this moon, complex and geologically young (Figure 9.21). There are large methane lakes near the polar regions that interact with the methane in the atmosphere, much as Earth’s water oceans interact with the water vapor in our atmosphere. The presence of many erosional features indicates that atmospheric methane can condense and fall as rain, then flow down valleys to the big lakes. Thus, Titan has a low-temperature equivalent of the water cycle on Earth, with liquid on the surface that evaporates, forms clouds, and then condenses to fall as rain—but on Titan the liquid is a combination of methane, ethane, and a trace of other hydrocarbons. It is a weirdly familiar and yet utterly alien landscape.

These discoveries raise the question of whether there could be life on Titan. Hydrocarbons are fundamental for the formation of the large carbon molecules that are essential to life on our planet. However, the temperature on Titan is far too low for liquid water or for many of the chemical processes that are essential to life as we know it. There remains, though, an intriguing possibility that Titan might have developed a different form of low-temperature carbon-based life that could operate with liquid hydrocarbons playing the role of water. The discovery of such “life as we don’t know it” could be even more exciting than finding life like ours on Mars. If such a truly alien life is present on Titan, its existence would greatly expand our understanding of the nature of life and of habitable environments.

NASA has selected a new mission to Titan for launch in 2027. Called Dragonfly, this mission is a drone that will fly in Titan’s atmosphere, with emphasis on study of pre-biotic chemistry. Other future proposed missions include a balloon operating in the atmosphere and a “boat” floating in one of the Titan lakes.

9.5.2 Enceladus, a Moon with a Hidden Ocean and the Potential to Host Life

Read this webpage to learn more about this icy moon of Saturn.

• Impey, Chris: “Saturn’s Enceladus.” Teach Astronomy.

Text Attributions

This text of this chapter is adapted from:

• Section 12.3 of OpenStax’s Astronomy 2e (2022) by Andrew Fraknoi, David Morrison, and Sidney Wolff. Licensed under CC BY 4.0. Access full book for free at this link.